• Model-based design and MBSE are central to modern automotive cyber-physical systems, enabling cross-domain integration, verification, and design-time analysis through unified models and ontologies; this pattern is visible across functional modeling methodologies, CPS co-design, and MBSE adoption [3], [4], [11], [10], [6].

• Human–machine interface (HMI) testing and use-case catalogues are increasingly systematized via frameworks, early concept assessment, and expert evaluations, enabling scalable HMI verification for ADS/ADAS and better driver interaction insights [1], [19], [20], [6].

• Scenario-based development and ontology-driven test catalogs shape ADS deployment planning, with scenario analyses, test-track development, and cross-domain scenario catalog integration informing safety and usability studies [2], [6], [18].

• Systems engineering practices in automotive contexts emphasize agile and MBSE integration, product-line engineering, and modularity to manage extreme complexity, variants, and rapid innovation in vehicle software/hardware ecosystems [8], [10], [12], [13].